Chapter 15 Science and the Mass Media

      Society seems to be advancing at the speed of light. It is said that one issue of the New York Times puts out more information than the entire Middle Ages did. One of the things we owe this too is the invention of modern science. Without science we wouldn’t have advanced in knowledge about us humans and about the world. Then we also have the mass media which allows people from all over the world to send and receive ideas and information from people they don’t even know.

       Science emerged in the 300s BCE in Greece, Babylon, India, China and Egypt. In ancient Greece the fields of mathematics, astronomy, biology, physics and medicine were explored by great thinkers such as Aristotle and Plato. However with the fall of the Roman Empire scientific advances slowed down and with the rise of the Catholic Church people turned towards philosophy and religion.

       The rebirth of science was due to four major factors which were the renaissance, the invention of the printing press, the age of exploration and the protestant reformation. Now rather than employing philosophical speculation, scientists used the scientific method which is an objective and systematic way to gather information and come to conclusions. Modern science however didn’t come to light until the 1800s and early 1900s.The norms of scientific research are universalism, organized skepticism, communalism, disinterestedness and counter-norms. Fraud is one of the realities of scientific research. A famous example was the “missing link” of human evolution which in this case was the skull of a human and the jaw of an orangutan. Another problem is competition which is one of the principal causes of norm violation in the scientific field.

      The mass media are instruments of communication that reach a large audience without having a personal relationship between the people sending it and the people receiving it. The instutionalization of the mass media includes writing and paper, the printing press, the industrial age and the computer and the information society. A few examples of mass media are print media (books, newspapers and magazines), audio media (music, audio books), visual media (television, movies, DVDs), online media (the internet) and convergence which is integration of two different medias such as a news paper with a web page. From the functionalist perspective, the mass media perform functions that support the stability of society. From a conflict perspective the purpose is to maintain social order. Some issues with mass media are what the media exposes to children, effects on civic and social life and the power that it holds.

Different types of Mass Media

       Thanks to the mass media and the scientific institution, we are able to enjoy many luxuries in the modern world. Yet science is advancing so fast that in a few years what we consider modern will be obsolete.

Chapter 13 Economy and Politics

       Societies need someone to run them and make their money flow. This is why societies develop economic systems according to their specific needs. They also need a ruler or leader to ensure that these systems run smoothly. Societies have different economic systems and different ways of choosing their leaders, these systems can be very complicated.

       To satisfy people's needs and wants, every society develops a system of roles and norms that governs the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. This is called the economic institution. The factors of production are resources needed to produce goods and services which include the land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. The primary sector deals with the extraction of raw materials from the environment.  The secondary sector concentrates on the use of raw materials to manufacture goods.  The tertiary sector shifts to providing services. In Preindustrial societies, there is very little technological development.  In Industrial societies, the main emphasis in the economy shifts from the primary sector to secondary. The Postindustrial societies or tertiary sector is the most important. In capitalism the factors of production are owned by the individuals rather than by the government. The Law of supply states that producers will supply more products when they can charge higher prices and fewer products when they must charge lower prices. The Law of demand states that consumers will demand more of a product as the price of the product decreases.   If government interference is kept to a minimum and if competition is restricted, the invisible hand of market forces will keep the economy in balance, sometimes known as laissez-faire capitalism. The commitment to limited government control of business operations has resulted in the labeling of capitalist economies as free-enterprise systems.

        In socialism, the factors of production are owned by the government, which regulates economic activity. Communism is a political and economic system in which property is communally owned. Totalitarianism: those in power exercise complete authority over the lives of individual citizens. A Corporation is a business organization that is owned by stockholders and is treated by law as if it were an individual person. An Oligopoly is the market situation in which a few large companies control an industry. Protectionism is the use of trade barriers to protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition. Free-trade is trade that is not restricted by trade barriers between countries. Multinational is any corporation that has factories and offices in several countries. The nature of work has shifted from an industrial base to a service base. E-commerce is business conducted over the internet. Recently in the USA the economy has gone down considerably, the national debt is worse than it has ever been in the past and this is because of the current president. 

       Power is the ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent. State is the primarily political authority in society. Political Institution is the system of roles and norms that govern the distribution and exercise the power of society. Functionalist view is to analyze political institutions in terms of functions of the state, creation of laws, settling conflicts with individuals and relations with other countries. Conflict theorist view is how the political institution brings social change. Different groups in society compete for power. Legitimacy is whether those in power have the right to govern others. Max Weber referred to legitimate power as authority. Coercion is power that is considered illegitimate by the people governed. Traditional authority is power based on a long standing custom. Rational legal authorities are rules and regulations that outline the rights and obligations of those in power. Charismatic authority is based on the personal characteristics of the individual in power. Political Parties are organizations that seek to gain power through legitimate means. Proportional representation ensures that minority parties receive a voice in the government. Interest Group is an organization that attempts to influence the political decision making process. Voter participation is the heart of the democratic process. Voter Participation varies among different groups of Americans. Race, education, employment and age are factors that affect voting. The Power-elite model was first presented by C. Wright Mills and states that political power is exercised by and for the privileged few in society. The Pluralist model states that the political process is controlled by interest groups that compete one another for power.

Political cartoon on monarchy

       People need to follow someone and they need norms and regulations to prosper. A leader is always needed to make sure that the economy and the well being of the people are in a good state. Some leaders though may not care about the economy or the people and only care for power and their personal economy. Whether it’s by democracy or absolutism, a leader is always needed in a larger society.

Chapter 14 Education and Religion

A successful society depends on its successful members. This is why children are taught norms and values either from an education system, family or religion. Education consists of the roles and norms that ensure the transmission of knowledge, values and behavioral patterns. Schooling is formal education instructed by officially trained teachers and follows strict policies.

In the functionalist perspective education serves the roles of teaching knowledge and skills, transmission of culture, social integration, and occupational placement. Then the conflict perspective on education believes that the purpose of education is for social control. Here an example is schools hidden curriculum which is the transmission of cultural goals that are not acknowledged such as values. Then there is tracking which involves assigning students to different types of educational programs. There have been some issues with the American school system. In 1983 a report was published that explained the decline of quality education in America and how the United States had fallen behind other industrialized nations in science and literary skills. There are also educational alternatives. Charter schools are funded with public money but are privately run. Also in school choice parents receive a voucher equal to the amount the state spends on education for the child. Homeschooling is a method rising in popularity where children are taught at home by their parents.

Since the dawn of time people have wondered where we come from and what happens after we due. Humans have tried to answer these questions through religion. The sacred is anything supernatural that inspired awe, respect and reverence. The profane is anything considered part of the ordinary world. Religion is a system of roles and norms organized around something sacred and that brings social groups together. The functions of religion are social cohesion, social control, and emotional support. A ritual is an established pattern of behavior in which the group believes they are experiencing something sacred. Animism is the belief that spirits actively influence human life. One type of animism is called shamanism in which people believe that spirits only communicate with one member of the group or shaman. Totemism is the belief of kinship between humans and animals. Theism is the belief in god or gods, Monotheism is the belief in one god. Polytheism is the belief in many gods. Ethicalism is based on the idea that moral principles are sacred. Ecclesia is a type of religion which people are part of by virtue of birth. A denomination is a well-established religious organization in which a substantial number of the population are members. A sect is a small religious group that is separated from the denomination because of different beliefs. A cult is a new religion whose beliefs and practices differ from the rest of the religions.

America is a place of many different religions. Because of immigration patterns and established religion freedom, the US is diverse when it comes to people of different religions. 90% of Americans claim to believe in God but only 66% claim to be affiliated with a religion.

Religious diversity

In order to survive, a society must ensure that the future generations have the capability to pass down their norms and values. Many societies do this through education systems that ensure the passing of knowledge. Many others also do it with religion. One of religion’s purposes is to pass down and teach values.

Chapter 11 Gender, Age and Health

Biologically, men and women are very different. Sociologically the case is the same. For thousands of years men and women have been treating each other differently. The usual case is women being treated as lesser human beings and men being glorified.

Gender comprises the behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women. Gender roles are the specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women. Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture. Appropriate gender role behavior is learned through socialization. The power relationship between men and women developed into a patriarchy. Sexism is the belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other the women’s right movement was a time period in America, the goal was equality of sexes socially and politically. The most important reform during the women's movement was earning the right to vote or suffrage. During this movement, women wanted the chance to get a higher education. The wage gap is the level of woman's income relative to that of men, which changed very little. There is also a type of invisible barrier that often prevents women from obtaining higher business positions. There is also a political gender gap in the USA, women tend to vote more but men dominate politics.

Women demanding votes

Agism is the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category. Sociologists are interested in a phenomenon called “the graying of America” which predicts that by 2050 1 in 5 Americans will be elderly. During the 1960's, approximately 76 million children were born during this time period known as the baby-boom generation. Medicare is the government-sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans and Americans with disabilities. Medicaid is the state and federally funded health-insurance program for low-income individuals. Some people claim that government transfer payments like Social Security have made older Americans financially secure at the expense of younger generations. These disabilities also cause people to face prejudice. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 has the potential to bring employment to disabled people.

 Advances in medical technology have also affected health-care costs. One method of controlling health expenditures is the use of alternative health-insurance plans called managed care. Yet many Americans have problems getting healthcare even with the oversupply of doctors. There is a great problem with the distribution of physicians both geographically and in medical fields. Poor people are unlikely receive adequate medical care. The majority of medical costs in the United States are covered by private or public insurance. Alternative medicine includes treating illness with unconventional methods such as acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, massage, medication, yoga, herbal remedies, and relaxation techniques. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that attacks the immune system, leaving a person vulnerable to a host of deadly infections. One does not necessarily die of AIDS but of some regular sickness that the body cannot fight due to the deteriorated immune system. Many AIDS activists claim the United States government has not responded adequately to the AIDS crisis. However, there have been great efforts to ameliorate the crisis from the government.

We are all different from the day we are born. We are either born male or female and after that we keep changing as we get older. Over time women have gotten more equal treatment than they ever had. The world is also aging. People are now living longer and with that there are special needs that need to be tended.

Chapter 12 Family

       A family is a group of people who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption and who often live together and share economic resources. Families are essential to society because not only do they provide for the economy but they make up what we call society. Traditions customs and norms are passed to new members of society by family.

        A nuclear family consists of one or both parents and their children. An individual's family of orientation is the nuclear family into which the person is born or adopted. The family of procreation of an individual is the family into which he or she marries into.. An extended family consists of two or more generations. Kinship is a network of people who are related by marriage, birth, or adoption. Marriage is the set of norms that establishes and characterizes the relationship between married individuals. The marriage of one man to one woman is called monogamy. Marriage with multiple partners is called polygamy. This is when a man is allowed to marry more than one woman at a time.

Married couple 

        Polyandry is when a woman is permitted to marry one man at a time. When a married couple lives with or close to the husband's parents, it is called patrilocality. Oppositely when the married couple lives near the wife's parents, it is called matrilocality. Bilocality is when the newly married couple chooses to live where they want.  Matrilineal descent is when property is passed from mother to daughter. Patrilineal descent is when property is passed from father to son. Property can be inherited from either side of the family in bilateral descent. A patriarchy is when the father holds most of the authority and a matriarchy is when the mother holds most of the authority. Eaglitarian is when the mother and father share authority. In most societies there is an incest taboo forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives.

       Americans usually marry individuals who have social characteristics similar to their own, this is called homogamy. Heterogamy on the other side is marriage between individuals who have different social characteristics. There are many ways a family can be disrupted the most devastating would be family violence. Another type of family disruption is divorce. Dual-earner families are families in which both husband and wife have jobs. In the USA, marriage is often delayed and put off until later years and delayed childbearing is also common in the USA. The sandwich generation are couples that are caught between the needs of their children and those of their parents. The choice to remain childless is called voluntary childlessness, which is very usual in the USA. Dual earning couples are also a popular trend in American culture. Remarriage and single parenting are also common in America.

       Families are very important to culture and society. Without them society wouldn’t be able to thrive economically, reproduce efficiently or pass down traditions and norms. There are many types of families and many different types of ways families can form. Trends within family change all the time along with changes in society. We have to appreciate and value family because they are the core of society.

Chapter 10 Racial and Ethnic Relations

       Everyone is different as individuals. Yet people are brought together by similar physical characteristics or cultural backgrounds. These groups of people can be the “dominant” group of societies and the rest can just be minorities who the dominant group accepts or rejects.

       Race is a category of people who share inherited physical characteristics and whom others see as being a different group. Sociologists don’t really look at these different physical characteristics but see how people react to them. As an opposite we have ethnicity. Rather than physical characteristics, ethnicity is a set of cultural characteristics that distinguish a group. People who share a common cultural background are known as an ethnic group. Race and ethnicity are composed of different characteristics. Race refers to physical characteristics while ethnicity refers to cultural characteristics. Being a member of a certain race or ethnicity can result in being part of a minority group. A minority group is a group who because of their physical or ethnic characteristics are singled out and treated unequally. Historically scholars had placed people in three different categories which were Caucasoid (whites), Mongoloid (Asians) and Negroid (blacks). Yet these categories have many gaps for people can fit into more than one category.

This child would fit in both Negroid and Caucasoid categories because of his dark skina and fair hair.

       Scientifically no particular physical feature or ethnic background is superior. A minority status exists because it has been established by the dominant members of society. Discrimination can range from just being rude to committing violent acts. There are two types of societal discrimination, Legal discrimination which is upheld by law and institutional discrimination which is an outgrowth in the structure of society. Then there is prejudice. Prejudice usually comes with stereotypes (over simplified, exaggerated generalization about a group of people). Racism is the belief that one’s’ own race or ethnic group is superior than others. One of the most accepted explanations for discrimination is scapegoating or blaming an innocent individual or group.

       There are different patterns to which societies treat minorities. One of them is cultural pluralism. This policy allows each group in society to keep its unique cultural identity. Then we have assimilation which is the blending of two or more different cultural groups. Many countries have established legal protection to ensure the rights of the minority groups. Then there are policies that separate a minority group from the dominant group called segregation. Some places engage in subjugation or the maintaining control of a group through force. When the dominant group of society separates from the minority it’s called population transfer. The most extreme response to minorities is extermination also known as genocide.

       The world is full of different cultures with different physical characteristics and ethnicities. It can be very hard to classify physical characteristics because there are so many mixed traits. When a group moves to a new area and becomes a minority group they can either be accepted and integrated or frowned upon and segregating. The truth is that no physical trait or ethnicity is superior than others and that discrimination is just imposed by society.