End of the Year Reflection.

       Sociology is a very interesting subject which helped me understand society in a much deeper level. I learned more about things that I wouldn't have been interested in learning because they were so common to me, like family for example. To be honest though, I enjoyed psychology a lot more because to me individuals are more interesting than overall communities. There were some subjects, however, that I really loved such as economy and politics. I also liked the documentaries we watched. Overall, the class was very interesting but in the end psychology was more interesting for me.

How Facebook CHangesd the World: The Arab Spring

       The Arab Spring was a series of revolutions made possible by Facebook which started in Tunisia. It all started with a young fruit seller who had had enough of the government and the corrupt police. After an encounter with police brutality he set himself on fire as a form of protest. This event inspired a protest against the government and dictator Ben Ali. Once big crowds gathered the people lost their fear and started to spout their views openly. When the police arrived what started as a peaceful protest, became a street war. Yet almost everyone in the crowd had a cell phone and many recorded the riot. The police was trying to arrest people with cell phones but many were hidden in strategic places where they could film. These videos were uploaded via Facebook and went viral. In the end, Tunisia was able to get rid of their dictator and this inspired their nations to revolutionize. From Morocco to Yemen, the citizens were trying to overthrow their government. Another successful revolution was and Egypt and like Tunisia it was made possible because of the Internet. The Internet was the safest place to express their views because other than governmental WebPages, the leaders did not pay much attention to it. 

Countires 

       The series of revolutions in the Arab world known as “The Arab Spring” are examples of the contagion theory of collective behavior. This theory states that the hypnotic power of a crowd forces people to abandon their individuality to the stronger pull of the group. This can be seen in a smaller scale and in a larger scale. In Tunisia, for example, the people finally lost their fear of voicing their opinion when they were in the crowd. This is because the crowd gave them power and they weren’t individual people anymore, they were anonymous. One can also argue that the chain effect that this revolution had is part of collective behavior. When people in other countries saw how Tunisia got rid of their dictator it encouraged them to do the same thing.

       The cause of these particular social movements can be debatable. One is relative depravation theory. This could apply because the citizens of these nations felt deprived of rights. This may have triggered but the reason some of the revolutions were successful were due to resource-mobilization theory. Without the help of educated Tunisians, computer experts and the internet (Facebook), the Arab Spring would not have been as successful as it was. This is because the way the revolutionaries were able to operate was through the internet and they were able to show the rest of the world what was really going on.

       Social movements like these are the ones that usually bring the best for the people. Tunisia got rid of her oppressor in just a few days. This would have never been possible without the internet. One single event can inspire many people to fight for their rights but without the resources needed, even the noblest revolution will fail.

Chapter 18 Social Change and Modernization

For a society to progress it must bring social change to the malfunctioning of the society. Throughout history we have seen social change for the better like in the French Revolution or the Enlightenment. Because of changes like these we have the modern society we have now. But still we keep moving forward inventing new ways of progress.

Social change is defined as alterations in sections of society over time. A cynical theory of social change views change in a historical point of view. When a society arises, it goes through change as part of a natural development. According to Pitirim Sorokin all cultures fluctuate between two extreme forms of culture. Ideational culture which functions on a base of faith and religion and sensate culture where people knowledge seek through science. And idealistic culture is a mixture of the two. He referred to the natural tendency of social change as the principle of immanent change. Evolutionary theorists in the 1800’s believed that societies evolved through distinct stages of social development. Modern evolutionary theorists on the other hand believe that societies get more complex naturally. The equilibrium theory of social change compares society to a living organism and when it is disrupted, change will come. The conflict theory of social change states that when two or more opposing groups clash it will bring social change.

Core, Periphery and Semiperiphery nations

Modernization is when society’s institutions become more complex and it moves towards industrialization. The modernization theory states that more developed nations are modernized because they industrialized first. According to the world system theory, the world is composed of three types of countries. Core nations are developed nations such as the USA, Japan and Canada. Peripheral nations are poor countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Finally semiperipheral nations are between core and peripheral nations.

Our society naturally gets more complex and moves towards an even more modernized future. This is because all societies have change at some point and the old ways are replaced with new, more functional ways. We are all moving to an even more modernized future.

Chapter 17 Collective Behavior and Social Movement

In many places the people are upset with their government or the way their society works. Every once in a while, when the people cannot take it anymore, they try to change that part of society that they don’t like. Sometimes they are successful, other times they are not.

       Collective behavior is the relatively spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to develop common solutions to unclear situations. Groups that exhibit collective behavior are called collectives. Three factors distinguish these collectives and they are limited interaction (there is little to no interaction), unclear norms (behavior is unclear or unconventional), and limited unity. A collectivity is a gathering of people that barely interact and have unclear norms and unity. A crowd is a temporary gathering of people who are close enough proximity to interact. A mob is an emotionally charged collectivity whose members are united by a specific destructive or violent goal. A riot is a collection of people who erupt into generalized destructive behavior. A panic is a spontaneous an uncoordinated group action to escape a perceived threat. A moral panic occurs when people become fearful-often without a reason- about behavior that appears to threaten society’s core values. Fashions refer to enthusiastic attachments among large groups of people for particular styles. Fads are similar to fashions but last a short period of time. A rumor is an unverified piece of information that is spread rapidly. Urban legends are stories that teach a lesson and seem realistic but are not. Propaganda is an organized and deliberate attempt to shape public opinion. Contagion theory states that the hypnotic power of a crowd forces people to give up their individuality to strengthen the group.

"Liberty Guiding the People" by Eugene Delacroix depicts a revolutionary movement.

       Social movements are more deliberate and long lasting forms of collective behavior. Reactionary movements have the goal of reversing the current social trends. Conservative movements try to protect what they see as society’s prevailing values. Revisionary movements try to improve a part of society through social change and finally revolutionary movements are complete radical change of the existing social structure. The life cycle of social movements is agitation, legitimation, bureaucratization, and institutionalization. Relative depravation theory states that people join social groups because they feel deprived relative to other groups. Resource mobilization theory states that even the most ill-treated group with the most just cause will be able to bring social change without resources.

       Regimes are overthrown constantly, this is because the people are unsatisfied with their rules. Throughout history it has been common that groups are made to bring social change, the Magna Carta and the French Revolution are examples. When the people feel threatened or unsatisfied, they will do anything in their power to change it.

Chapter 16 Population and Urbanization

       A society is composed of a population. The amount of people living at the same place can greatly affect how a society works. An example is urbanization which is caused by people moving to cities and leaving the country. Great population increase or decrease affects the functioning society.

       A population is the number of people living in an area at a particular time. Demography is the area of sociology devoted to the study of human populations. The measure to describe the amount of births is the birthrate and its formula is Birthrate=live births/Total population X 1000. Fertility is used to describe the number of women of child bearing age that are actually having children. Fecundity is the biological capability to bear children. The number of deaths within a society is the mortality. The measure to calculate the number of deaths in a population is the death rate. The infant mortality rate is the amount of children under the age of one year that die. Life expectancy is the amount of years a person is expected to live according to the year they were born. Migration is the movement of one specified area to another. The migration rate is calculated by the amount of immigration and emigration. The rate at which a countries population increases is called the growth rate. The Malthusian theory was developed by Thomas Malthus and it stated that population would grow to astronomical numbers and that there would be famine, war and conflict due to it. The demographic transition theory states that a country’s population depends on its technological development. Zero growth rate is the point where the birthrates almost match the death rates creating zero population growth.

One Child Policy in China 

       Urbanization is a concentration of the population in cities. A city is a permanent residence for a large number of people who do not engage in farming activities. The evolution of cities are the preindustrial cities to the industrial cities. Overurbanization happens when more people live in a city than the city can provide for in jobs or facilities. There are different types of city structures which are the concentric model, the sector model, the multiple nuclei model and the urban ecology model.

       People are always seeking a better life. Overpopulation is caused by people having children to take care of them. Under population is caused when having children brings economical problems. Urbanization happens when people decide to leave the country and move to the city.

Chapter 15 Science and the Mass Media

      Society seems to be advancing at the speed of light. It is said that one issue of the New York Times puts out more information than the entire Middle Ages did. One of the things we owe this too is the invention of modern science. Without science we wouldn’t have advanced in knowledge about us humans and about the world. Then we also have the mass media which allows people from all over the world to send and receive ideas and information from people they don’t even know.

       Science emerged in the 300s BCE in Greece, Babylon, India, China and Egypt. In ancient Greece the fields of mathematics, astronomy, biology, physics and medicine were explored by great thinkers such as Aristotle and Plato. However with the fall of the Roman Empire scientific advances slowed down and with the rise of the Catholic Church people turned towards philosophy and religion.

       The rebirth of science was due to four major factors which were the renaissance, the invention of the printing press, the age of exploration and the protestant reformation. Now rather than employing philosophical speculation, scientists used the scientific method which is an objective and systematic way to gather information and come to conclusions. Modern science however didn’t come to light until the 1800s and early 1900s.The norms of scientific research are universalism, organized skepticism, communalism, disinterestedness and counter-norms. Fraud is one of the realities of scientific research. A famous example was the “missing link” of human evolution which in this case was the skull of a human and the jaw of an orangutan. Another problem is competition which is one of the principal causes of norm violation in the scientific field.

      The mass media are instruments of communication that reach a large audience without having a personal relationship between the people sending it and the people receiving it. The instutionalization of the mass media includes writing and paper, the printing press, the industrial age and the computer and the information society. A few examples of mass media are print media (books, newspapers and magazines), audio media (music, audio books), visual media (television, movies, DVDs), online media (the internet) and convergence which is integration of two different medias such as a news paper with a web page. From the functionalist perspective, the mass media perform functions that support the stability of society. From a conflict perspective the purpose is to maintain social order. Some issues with mass media are what the media exposes to children, effects on civic and social life and the power that it holds.

Different types of Mass Media

       Thanks to the mass media and the scientific institution, we are able to enjoy many luxuries in the modern world. Yet science is advancing so fast that in a few years what we consider modern will be obsolete.

Chapter 13 Economy and Politics

       Societies need someone to run them and make their money flow. This is why societies develop economic systems according to their specific needs. They also need a ruler or leader to ensure that these systems run smoothly. Societies have different economic systems and different ways of choosing their leaders, these systems can be very complicated.

       To satisfy people's needs and wants, every society develops a system of roles and norms that governs the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. This is called the economic institution. The factors of production are resources needed to produce goods and services which include the land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. The primary sector deals with the extraction of raw materials from the environment.  The secondary sector concentrates on the use of raw materials to manufacture goods.  The tertiary sector shifts to providing services. In Preindustrial societies, there is very little technological development.  In Industrial societies, the main emphasis in the economy shifts from the primary sector to secondary. The Postindustrial societies or tertiary sector is the most important. In capitalism the factors of production are owned by the individuals rather than by the government. The Law of supply states that producers will supply more products when they can charge higher prices and fewer products when they must charge lower prices. The Law of demand states that consumers will demand more of a product as the price of the product decreases.   If government interference is kept to a minimum and if competition is restricted, the invisible hand of market forces will keep the economy in balance, sometimes known as laissez-faire capitalism. The commitment to limited government control of business operations has resulted in the labeling of capitalist economies as free-enterprise systems.

        In socialism, the factors of production are owned by the government, which regulates economic activity. Communism is a political and economic system in which property is communally owned. Totalitarianism: those in power exercise complete authority over the lives of individual citizens. A Corporation is a business organization that is owned by stockholders and is treated by law as if it were an individual person. An Oligopoly is the market situation in which a few large companies control an industry. Protectionism is the use of trade barriers to protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition. Free-trade is trade that is not restricted by trade barriers between countries. Multinational is any corporation that has factories and offices in several countries. The nature of work has shifted from an industrial base to a service base. E-commerce is business conducted over the internet. Recently in the USA the economy has gone down considerably, the national debt is worse than it has ever been in the past and this is because of the current president. 

       Power is the ability to control the behavior of others with or without their consent. State is the primarily political authority in society. Political Institution is the system of roles and norms that govern the distribution and exercise the power of society. Functionalist view is to analyze political institutions in terms of functions of the state, creation of laws, settling conflicts with individuals and relations with other countries. Conflict theorist view is how the political institution brings social change. Different groups in society compete for power. Legitimacy is whether those in power have the right to govern others. Max Weber referred to legitimate power as authority. Coercion is power that is considered illegitimate by the people governed. Traditional authority is power based on a long standing custom. Rational legal authorities are rules and regulations that outline the rights and obligations of those in power. Charismatic authority is based on the personal characteristics of the individual in power. Political Parties are organizations that seek to gain power through legitimate means. Proportional representation ensures that minority parties receive a voice in the government. Interest Group is an organization that attempts to influence the political decision making process. Voter participation is the heart of the democratic process. Voter Participation varies among different groups of Americans. Race, education, employment and age are factors that affect voting. The Power-elite model was first presented by C. Wright Mills and states that political power is exercised by and for the privileged few in society. The Pluralist model states that the political process is controlled by interest groups that compete one another for power.

Political cartoon on monarchy

       People need to follow someone and they need norms and regulations to prosper. A leader is always needed to make sure that the economy and the well being of the people are in a good state. Some leaders though may not care about the economy or the people and only care for power and their personal economy. Whether it’s by democracy or absolutism, a leader is always needed in a larger society.

Chapter 14 Education and Religion

A successful society depends on its successful members. This is why children are taught norms and values either from an education system, family or religion. Education consists of the roles and norms that ensure the transmission of knowledge, values and behavioral patterns. Schooling is formal education instructed by officially trained teachers and follows strict policies.

In the functionalist perspective education serves the roles of teaching knowledge and skills, transmission of culture, social integration, and occupational placement. Then the conflict perspective on education believes that the purpose of education is for social control. Here an example is schools hidden curriculum which is the transmission of cultural goals that are not acknowledged such as values. Then there is tracking which involves assigning students to different types of educational programs. There have been some issues with the American school system. In 1983 a report was published that explained the decline of quality education in America and how the United States had fallen behind other industrialized nations in science and literary skills. There are also educational alternatives. Charter schools are funded with public money but are privately run. Also in school choice parents receive a voucher equal to the amount the state spends on education for the child. Homeschooling is a method rising in popularity where children are taught at home by their parents.

Since the dawn of time people have wondered where we come from and what happens after we due. Humans have tried to answer these questions through religion. The sacred is anything supernatural that inspired awe, respect and reverence. The profane is anything considered part of the ordinary world. Religion is a system of roles and norms organized around something sacred and that brings social groups together. The functions of religion are social cohesion, social control, and emotional support. A ritual is an established pattern of behavior in which the group believes they are experiencing something sacred. Animism is the belief that spirits actively influence human life. One type of animism is called shamanism in which people believe that spirits only communicate with one member of the group or shaman. Totemism is the belief of kinship between humans and animals. Theism is the belief in god or gods, Monotheism is the belief in one god. Polytheism is the belief in many gods. Ethicalism is based on the idea that moral principles are sacred. Ecclesia is a type of religion which people are part of by virtue of birth. A denomination is a well-established religious organization in which a substantial number of the population are members. A sect is a small religious group that is separated from the denomination because of different beliefs. A cult is a new religion whose beliefs and practices differ from the rest of the religions.

America is a place of many different religions. Because of immigration patterns and established religion freedom, the US is diverse when it comes to people of different religions. 90% of Americans claim to believe in God but only 66% claim to be affiliated with a religion.

Religious diversity

In order to survive, a society must ensure that the future generations have the capability to pass down their norms and values. Many societies do this through education systems that ensure the passing of knowledge. Many others also do it with religion. One of religion’s purposes is to pass down and teach values.

Chapter 11 Gender, Age and Health

Biologically, men and women are very different. Sociologically the case is the same. For thousands of years men and women have been treating each other differently. The usual case is women being treated as lesser human beings and men being glorified.

Gender comprises the behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women. Gender roles are the specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women. Gender identity is the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture. Appropriate gender role behavior is learned through socialization. The power relationship between men and women developed into a patriarchy. Sexism is the belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other the women’s right movement was a time period in America, the goal was equality of sexes socially and politically. The most important reform during the women's movement was earning the right to vote or suffrage. During this movement, women wanted the chance to get a higher education. The wage gap is the level of woman's income relative to that of men, which changed very little. There is also a type of invisible barrier that often prevents women from obtaining higher business positions. There is also a political gender gap in the USA, women tend to vote more but men dominate politics.

Women demanding votes

Agism is the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category. Sociologists are interested in a phenomenon called “the graying of America” which predicts that by 2050 1 in 5 Americans will be elderly. During the 1960's, approximately 76 million children were born during this time period known as the baby-boom generation. Medicare is the government-sponsored health-insurance plan for elderly Americans and Americans with disabilities. Medicaid is the state and federally funded health-insurance program for low-income individuals. Some people claim that government transfer payments like Social Security have made older Americans financially secure at the expense of younger generations. These disabilities also cause people to face prejudice. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 has the potential to bring employment to disabled people.

 Advances in medical technology have also affected health-care costs. One method of controlling health expenditures is the use of alternative health-insurance plans called managed care. Yet many Americans have problems getting healthcare even with the oversupply of doctors. There is a great problem with the distribution of physicians both geographically and in medical fields. Poor people are unlikely receive adequate medical care. The majority of medical costs in the United States are covered by private or public insurance. Alternative medicine includes treating illness with unconventional methods such as acupuncture, acupressure, biofeedback, massage, medication, yoga, herbal remedies, and relaxation techniques. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease that attacks the immune system, leaving a person vulnerable to a host of deadly infections. One does not necessarily die of AIDS but of some regular sickness that the body cannot fight due to the deteriorated immune system. Many AIDS activists claim the United States government has not responded adequately to the AIDS crisis. However, there have been great efforts to ameliorate the crisis from the government.

We are all different from the day we are born. We are either born male or female and after that we keep changing as we get older. Over time women have gotten more equal treatment than they ever had. The world is also aging. People are now living longer and with that there are special needs that need to be tended.

Chapter 12 Family

       A family is a group of people who are related by marriage, blood, or adoption and who often live together and share economic resources. Families are essential to society because not only do they provide for the economy but they make up what we call society. Traditions customs and norms are passed to new members of society by family.

        A nuclear family consists of one or both parents and their children. An individual's family of orientation is the nuclear family into which the person is born or adopted. The family of procreation of an individual is the family into which he or she marries into.. An extended family consists of two or more generations. Kinship is a network of people who are related by marriage, birth, or adoption. Marriage is the set of norms that establishes and characterizes the relationship between married individuals. The marriage of one man to one woman is called monogamy. Marriage with multiple partners is called polygamy. This is when a man is allowed to marry more than one woman at a time.

Married couple 

        Polyandry is when a woman is permitted to marry one man at a time. When a married couple lives with or close to the husband's parents, it is called patrilocality. Oppositely when the married couple lives near the wife's parents, it is called matrilocality. Bilocality is when the newly married couple chooses to live where they want.  Matrilineal descent is when property is passed from mother to daughter. Patrilineal descent is when property is passed from father to son. Property can be inherited from either side of the family in bilateral descent. A patriarchy is when the father holds most of the authority and a matriarchy is when the mother holds most of the authority. Eaglitarian is when the mother and father share authority. In most societies there is an incest taboo forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives.

       Americans usually marry individuals who have social characteristics similar to their own, this is called homogamy. Heterogamy on the other side is marriage between individuals who have different social characteristics. There are many ways a family can be disrupted the most devastating would be family violence. Another type of family disruption is divorce. Dual-earner families are families in which both husband and wife have jobs. In the USA, marriage is often delayed and put off until later years and delayed childbearing is also common in the USA. The sandwich generation are couples that are caught between the needs of their children and those of their parents. The choice to remain childless is called voluntary childlessness, which is very usual in the USA. Dual earning couples are also a popular trend in American culture. Remarriage and single parenting are also common in America.

       Families are very important to culture and society. Without them society wouldn’t be able to thrive economically, reproduce efficiently or pass down traditions and norms. There are many types of families and many different types of ways families can form. Trends within family change all the time along with changes in society. We have to appreciate and value family because they are the core of society.

Chapter 10 Racial and Ethnic Relations

       Everyone is different as individuals. Yet people are brought together by similar physical characteristics or cultural backgrounds. These groups of people can be the “dominant” group of societies and the rest can just be minorities who the dominant group accepts or rejects.

       Race is a category of people who share inherited physical characteristics and whom others see as being a different group. Sociologists don’t really look at these different physical characteristics but see how people react to them. As an opposite we have ethnicity. Rather than physical characteristics, ethnicity is a set of cultural characteristics that distinguish a group. People who share a common cultural background are known as an ethnic group. Race and ethnicity are composed of different characteristics. Race refers to physical characteristics while ethnicity refers to cultural characteristics. Being a member of a certain race or ethnicity can result in being part of a minority group. A minority group is a group who because of their physical or ethnic characteristics are singled out and treated unequally. Historically scholars had placed people in three different categories which were Caucasoid (whites), Mongoloid (Asians) and Negroid (blacks). Yet these categories have many gaps for people can fit into more than one category.

This child would fit in both Negroid and Caucasoid categories because of his dark skina and fair hair.

       Scientifically no particular physical feature or ethnic background is superior. A minority status exists because it has been established by the dominant members of society. Discrimination can range from just being rude to committing violent acts. There are two types of societal discrimination, Legal discrimination which is upheld by law and institutional discrimination which is an outgrowth in the structure of society. Then there is prejudice. Prejudice usually comes with stereotypes (over simplified, exaggerated generalization about a group of people). Racism is the belief that one’s’ own race or ethnic group is superior than others. One of the most accepted explanations for discrimination is scapegoating or blaming an innocent individual or group.

       There are different patterns to which societies treat minorities. One of them is cultural pluralism. This policy allows each group in society to keep its unique cultural identity. Then we have assimilation which is the blending of two or more different cultural groups. Many countries have established legal protection to ensure the rights of the minority groups. Then there are policies that separate a minority group from the dominant group called segregation. Some places engage in subjugation or the maintaining control of a group through force. When the dominant group of society separates from the minority it’s called population transfer. The most extreme response to minorities is extermination also known as genocide.

       The world is full of different cultures with different physical characteristics and ethnicities. It can be very hard to classify physical characteristics because there are so many mixed traits. When a group moves to a new area and becomes a minority group they can either be accepted and integrated or frowned upon and segregating. The truth is that no physical trait or ethnicity is superior than others and that discrimination is just imposed by society.

Chapter 9 Social Stratifications

In every existing society there has been social inequality. Even if the social classes are divided in a different way, come will always be above others. Social classes can be divided by many factors such as income, education, occupation, lifestyle or even heritage.

The level of social inequality depends on the society’s stratification system.  There are two basic types of stratification systems which are caste systems and class systems. A caste system has scarce resources and social rewards are distributed according to ascribed statuses. A newborn’s status is determined by his/her lifelong status. The practice of exogamy to determine status when there is marriage between two different castes. This practice is marriage outside one’s social category. Most commonly however endogamy is practiced which is marriage within one’s own social category. Class systems on the other hand is composed by the distribution of scarce resources and rewards through achieved statuses. This means that one can climb the social ladder. The dimensions of social stratification are wealth, power and prestige. An individual’s wealth is made up of his or her assets (value of what the person owns) and income. Power is the ability to control the behavior of others with or without consent. People who have a substantial wealth usually hold some power. One can also be ranked by prestige which is the respect, honor, recognition or courtesy an individual receives from the members of society. There are two main theories for stratification. One of them is the functionalist theory which views stratification as necessary feature of social structure. They claim that without varying rewards, jobs wouldn’t be fulfilled and society wouldn’t run smoothly. The other is the conflict theory which states that the competition for scarce resources is the cause of social inequality.

Political Cartoon about the differences between the rich and the poor

There is social inequality in every class system. Theoretically, all Americans have equal access to the resources needed for social advances but there are many different social statuses in America. Sociologists do not agree in the number of class divisions in the United States. The most common is dividing it into five classes: upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class, working class and lower class. There are three basic methods to determining these divisions. The first is reputational and individuals in the community are asked to rank other community members based on lifestyle. The second is subjective in which individuals are asked to determine their own social rank. The third is objective and divisions are determined by income, occupation and education. The upper class makes up percent of the population and it controls a proportion of the countries’ wealth. Then there is the upper middle class who are high income business people and professionals. The lower middle class are usually people who hold white collar jobs and work doesn’t involve manual labor. The working class holds jobs that require manual labor. The working poor are the ones who have the lowest paying jobs and the underclass are families that have experienced poverty and unemployment for generations. Social mobility is the movement between or within between or within social classes.

Even in the most prosperous countries, there is always going to be poverty. Poverty is seen as the standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by the society. the minimum income is called the poverty level. In America the largest percent of poverty in age group are children. According to gender 57 percent of the poor are women. Finally according to race and ethnicity African Americans and Hispanics have the highest poverty rates. Life chances are the likelihood of an individual sharing the benefits and opportunities of society. It has been shown that life chances vary by social class and that the lower the class the less life chances. Life expectancy is the average years a person will live. Poor children are 60 percent more likely to die in their first year. Behavior patterns also change according to social class. For example, divorce rates are higher in the lower class than any other social class. The government responds by trying to help those in need through programs such as Medicare.

Social classes can be very complex. Many sociologists even argue about how they should be divided. Whether it’s by caste system or social classes, there will always be inequality among society.

Chapter 8 Deviance and Social Control

      The world becomes more connected everyday and our societies get bigger and closer without us even noticing. This makes the rules and norms harder to interpret to the eyes of some individuals. Certain people cannot process the norms that a society has. This can show by the person dressing a strange way to the community or it can lead to more serious violations that require punishment. This is why there is a complex legal system to protect people from offenders.

       Most people internalize social norms but there are some people who break the rules. We can’t really internalize all of the rules society has and because of this we are bound to break them once in a while. Behavior that violates specific and significant social norms is called deviance. Since there are so many norms governing behavior, occasional violations are unavoidable and not considered deviant. One of the ways to be considered deviant is to commit an offence repetitively. For example, if one continues to get speeding tickets over and over again, then that person will be considered reckless and therefore deviant. A stigma is a mark of social disgrace that sets the deviant apart from the rest of society. The social foundations of deviance are clarifying norms, unifying the group, diffusing tension, promoting social change and providing jobs. There are different theories dedicated to deviance. The first is the functionalist theory which states that deviance comes from a natural outgrowth of the norms in the community. Next is the conflict theory which states that deviance is the result of competition and social inequality. Finally interactionalists insist that deviance is a natural human feeling.

     A crime is any act that is labeled as such by those in authority, is prohibited by law, and punishable by the government. The five main categories of crime are violent crimes which are murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. Then we have crimes against property which include burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Third there are victimless crimes which are composed of prostitution, illegal gambling, illegal drug use, and vagrancy. Fourth there is white-collar crimes which are committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their professional lives: misrepresentation, fraud, tax evasion, embezzlement, price fixing, toxic pollution, insider trading, and political corruption are the usual crimes. Finally there is organized crime composed of drug trafficking, illegal gambling, unfair labor practices, hijacking of merchandise, and loan-sharking.

       A crime syndicate is a large-scale organization of professional criminals that controls some vice or business through violence or the threat of violence. Crimes as we know, don’t go unpunished, once a crime has been committed and reported it is taken by the jurisdiction of the criminal-justice system. Police discretion is the power to decide who is actually arrested. This power is very important and requires a great amount of responsibility. Sadly many people take advantage of police discretion. It is widely suspected the high rates of African American arrests are caused by racial profiling. When a criminal is arrested, they have the right for a trial and they go to court. They do a process legal negotiation that allows an accused person to plead guilty to a lesser charge in return for a lighter sentence. This process is called legal bargaining. Corrections are sanctions used to punish criminals and they have four functions: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and social protection. The juvenile-justice system is for offenders under 18. This system is like the criminal-justice system yet is not as harsh due to the fact that the offenders are minors. When a person constantly repeats criminal behavior it is called Recidivism.

       Deviance in my opinion is very important. In some ways one must learn not to follow everything a society or regime says. Yet there are some norms that are there to protect us and when people break those rules there may be serious consequences. Depending on the type of crime and how the person, pleads or defends him/herself in court there will be an adequate punishment. And example, if a criminal pleads guilty he may have some time removed from his sentence.  

Chapter 6/Chapter 7 The Adolescent in Society and The Adult in Society

Every day we grow whether it’s physically or mentally. We are always in a period of development even as adults. There are many challenges to every stage of life yet we have to go through it and enjoy it as much as we can.

Adolescence can be defined as the period between the normal onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. Puberty is the physical maturing that enables individuals of physical reproduction. The characteristics of adolescence are biological growth and development. Here the body’s glands produce various hormones that control biological development.  Then there is having an undefined status, expectations for children are known and expectations for adults are also known but expectations for teenager are vague. Increased decision making is another characteristic and increased pressure as well. Finally the search for self is when adolescents are mature enough to think for themselves and know what they want in life. Preparing for future roles is an important aspect to finding oneself. Anticipatory socialization is learning the rights, obligations and expectations of a role that will be taken in the future.

Adolescents

Dating is a universal phenomenon that is practiced a lot by adolescents. Dating was influenced by the industrial revolution when people were moving to cities and were less dependent on their parents. This made the idea of courtship decrease. Yet it was till after World War I that dating was practiced. This was because of the increased gender equality and the new sources if entertainment such as cars and cinemas. There are many functions to dating. First and probably most important is entertainment. It allows young people to go out and have fun especially in the stage of causal dating. Second, dating acts as a mechanism of socialization. It teaches individuals about members of the opposite sex and how to behave in social situations. Third, dating fulfills basic psychological needs such as conversation companionship and understanding.  Fourth, dating can help an individual attain status. It was shown in various studies that dating between college fraternities and sororities was mostly for status attainment. Fifth and final, in later stages of dating the person might select his/her as their spouse.

Adolescence has many challenges and consequences that come with those challenges. One of those challenges is teenage sexual behavior. Before the 1960’s the majority of Americans held the belief that sexual activity should be confined to marriage. However this changed in the 1960’s and 70’s due the development of birth control, contraception and the feminist movement led to the “sexual revolution”. Consequently teenage sexual activity has increased to 50 percent in 1995. There were also higher percentages of unmarried teen mothers. There are many consequences to teenage sexual activity which are that babies born from teenage mothers are usually underweight and more likely to die within the first year. Teenagers who become parents have a lower chance of finishing high school or college. Individuals who become parents at a young age also tend to have a lower income and teenage mothers also go through a lot of emotional stress. Another problem is teenage drug use. Though some drug use decreased during earlier years, some are starting to rise again. Influences of drug use are having friends who constantly do drugs, having social and academic adjustment problems and living in a hostile family setting. Finally there is teenage suicide which are contributed to drug and alcohol use. The rate of teenage suicide exceeds that of the general population.

After adolescence one enters the adult world. Male and female adult development is different. The adult male development is characterized by a life structure or a combination of statuses, roles, values, beliefs and life circumstances. An adult’s life is divided in early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. It is suggested that the adult female development is categorized in three phases. The first is leaving the family where the adult makes psychological break from parents. However many women put more emphasis on marriage than on careers. Then comes the entering the adult world phase which is when an adult gets married and has children. Finally entering the adult world again phase comes when the children enter grade school.

An important part of adult life is work. Labor force consists of all individuals age 16 and older who are employed in paid positions. The composition of the American labor force is changing and one of the biggest changes is the amount of working women. Women now hold about half of the professional jobs in the United States. A profession is a high status occupation that is obtained through formal education. Examples are Lawyers, teachers, dentists, engineers, etc. Unemployment is the situation that occurs when a person does not have a job but is actively seeking employment.

Professional Adults

With improved health care and other factors, people are living longer. Therefore the late adult era cannot be viewed as a single period of development. Late adulthood is divided into young-old (ages 65-74), middle-old (ages 75-84) and old-old (ages 85 and above). In many cases, when one reaches late adulthood they retire to pursue other careers or hobbies. One of the changes is adjusting to retired life. Another change is physical and mental functioning. As one ages, the body deteriorates which causes wrinkles, grey hair and losing physical capacity. Contrary to popular belief, as one ages the mind doesn’t necessarily deteriorate. Actually the mind can get stronger than ever before, however the elderly are more prone the Alzheimer’s disease which causes deterioration of the brain. Many elderly have issues with dependency and death. When an elderly person becomes dependent on a grown child the roles reverse and now the child takes over the role of caregiver and authority figure. Though many have problems with dependency, the elderly don’t seem to have a problem with death since they feel they have less to lose.

Late Adults

As we go through life we pass through many stages: childhood, adolescence, early, middle and late adulthood until we die. Each stage has challenges that we have to overcome but that doesn’t mean we cannot enjoy ourselves in any stage we are in.

Chapter 5 Socializing the Individual

       We all are different. This is because we have different personalities. Some are more outgoing, others are shyer. Some are easy going and others have a quick temper. But why is this? Are we born with a personality or do we develop a personality? There are many theories on how we develop a personality or sense of self but there are still many debates over it.

       Personality is the total sum of behaviors attitudes and beliefs in one person. Our individual personality traits determine how we adapt to an environment. No individuals have exactly the same personality. People’s personality keeps changing over time specific traits change at certain times and at certain paces making personality development vary from individual to individual. A heated debate between social scientists is nature vs. nurture. Some argue that heredity, the transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to children, is the cause of an individual’s personality. Others say that it is the result of the individual’s social environment and learning. It is also argued that instinctual behavior can be taught. One of the most influential factors in someone’s personality development is culture. Culture gives individuals an example of the different personalities that can be found in that culture do that individuals can emulate them.

       There are cases, however, in which children live in isolation and don’t have culture’s influence. In a few cases feral children, wild or untamed children, were found living with animals. In other cases the children were found isolated in their homes by their family. These children had few human characteristics. They had no reasoning skills, no manners, no control of bodily functions and couldn’t move about like other human beings. An example is the case of Anna who at the age of six was given back to her mother because of the hostility of her grandfather. She had been confined to an attic and given the minimum amount of care. At the age of six she could not talk, walk or feed herself.  Anna died at the age of ten.

The Wild Child is a film based on a true story of a child found living in the woods.

       We all have a self. This self is our conscious awareness of possessing a different identity that separates individuals from other members of society. There are three theories of the social self. The first is Locke’s theory, the Tabula Rasa. Locke believed that human beings could be molded into any type of character. Tabula rasa literally means clean slate, on which anything can be written. He claimed that humans were not born with a personality but acquire a personality through their experiences. He said that if he were given a new born child, he would be able to mold that child’s personality into any type of character. Social psychologist Charles Horton Cooley is most noted for developing the looking -glass self theory. This theory explains how individuals develop a sense of self. The looking glass self is an interactive process by which we create an image of ourselves based on how we imagine we appear to others. Finally we have Mead’s role-taking theory. He had many of his idea based on Cooley’s theories. He claimed that seeing ourselves through others’ eyes is only the beginning. After a while we start to take or pretend to take the roles of others. This is called role-taking. This socialization process lets us know what is expected from us.

       Sociologists use the term agents of socialization to describe individuals, groups or institutions that force us to socialize. The first one is family. Family is the most important agent of socialization because it is the first interaction children have. Then there is the peer group which is a primary group composed by people of roughly equal age. This group is most important in early teenage and pre teenage years. School is another agent. People from the ages five to eighteen spend a lot of time and effort in school. One of the main goals in school is to teach children how to work with others. The mass media is one of the largest agents because it can reach many people with no personal contact- this includes television, magazines, the internet, newspapers and the radio. Finally there is resocialization in a total institution. A total institution is a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and are under tight control. Here the act of resocialization occurs which is a break with past experiences and the learning of new values and norms. Examples of total institutions are prisons, military boot camps, monasteries, and psychiatric hospitals.

Prisons are an example of total institutions.

       We can all agree that culture/society is a great influence on our personality. We have seen how it affects us and we have seen the effects of lack of societal influences on people. There are theories on how we develop a personality based on other people and society. Our personality can even be changed under strict control.

Chapter 4 Social Structure

       Every bit of society is dependent on the other.  Every bit interacts with the other parts of society making it thrive and advance, making groups and holding a structure vital for the society to maintain itself.

       All societies are built by a similar structure. This social structure is composed by statuses and roles. A status is a socially defines position in a group or society. Each status has a set of roles which are the behaviors expected from that individual. When one plays a certain role, they have to interact with other people. There are five different types of social interactions which are seen regularly. When people interact to give or receive a reward for their actions it is called exchange. With this comes the idea of reciprocity which is when you do something for someone, that person owes you. Another form of social interaction id competition which occurs when two or more people or groups oppose each other to obtain a goal only one can achieve. Then we have conflict which puts more emphasis on defeating an opponent other than achieving a goal. This is the deliberate attempt to control someone by force, oppose them or harm them. Then on the other side we have cooperation which occurs when two or more people or groups work together to achieve a common goal. Finally there is accommodation which is the state of balance between cooperation and conflict.

Competition 

       Specific types of interactions lead to the forming of different groups or societies. There have been three main types of societies throughout human history one being the preindustrial society. This type of societies’ main concern is food production which can be produced by human or animal labor. After this there are industrial societies which shift its priorities from food production to the production on manufactured goods. With this comes urbanization or the concentration of population in cities. Finally in a post industrial society the economy is mostly involved in providing services. Within societies there are certain groups individuals are in. The main ones would be the primary and secondary groups. People who belong in a primary group together are family or groups of friends. Examples of people in the secondary group would be co workers. Other groups are reference groups, these are any group whom the individual identifies and adopts their attitudes. Then there are the common in and out groups. An in group is any group an individual belongs to. An out group is a group which the individual doesn’t belong to. The internet has given rise to a new type of group called E-communities where individuals interact with each other through their computers. We all interact with more than one group. All of the groups we interact with combined are called our social network. An interesting experiment by Stanly Milgram leads to what is known as six degrees of separation. The experiment ended with the idea that anyone in the world is separated by six connections at the most.

       The term formal organization is to describe a large, complex secondary group that has been established to achieve different goals. Most formal organizations are structured in what is known as a bureaucracy. A bureaucracy is a ranked authority structure that operates to specific rules and procedures. A very good example of a formal organization is corporate life in Japan. Many Japanese businesses have a very strict formal structure. There are more rules of etiquette and new employees must go to training sessions to learn these rules. A example is that a group of employees must have the same short haircut since having long hair is disrespectful for their clients. Bureaucracies or formal organizations breed what is known as the Peter Principle which states that, “in a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his own level of incompetence.” meaning that people are often promoted to a job that they are not qualified to do.

Japanese business etiquette

       Society lives off interaction. Without interaction we wouldn’t have groups, or structures that create society. We interact with the world in many different ways and to survive in modern society it is crucial to know how to interact with other people.

Chapter 3 Cultural Conformity and Adaptation

      No matter the society, there is always change. It is very hard for a society to remain without contact to the rest of the world and all cultures will always have influences from other cultures. Not all influences will be accepted and not all changes will be welcomed.

      All cultures have rules or norms that they have to follow if the society wants to prosper. People are expected to follow certain norms because they have internalized the norm. Internalization is when a norm becomes part of the individual’s personality. An example is when you are driving and immediately stop when you see a red light. You do this because you have internalized the fact that red means stop, not because you fear punishment. Most people follow the norms in their society but some need sanctions to keep them following the norms. There are different types of sanction and one of them is a positive sanction. A positive sanction is when one is rewarded because of positive behavior. An example is the positive reaction of parents when their children get good grades or behave well. Then we have a negative sanction, which is a punishment or threat of punishment to ensure positive behavior. For example, you will not park your car in a place that says, “No Parking” because you fear your car being towed. Sanctions can also be formal or informal. A formal sanction is a reward or punishment given by a formal organization like a business, school, government, etc. Finally, informal sanctions are a spontaneous expression of approval or disapproval.

      No matter how well structured a society is, there will always be changes over time. There are many sources of social change like values and beliefs. Changes in values or beliefs can cause consequences for the society especially if they were part of a larger ideology. An ideology is a system of beliefs and ideas that justify social, moral, religious or economical interests. They are often spread through social movements. These are long-term conscious efforts to promote or prevent social change. Then we have technology as a major source of social change. Changes occur when people recognize how to use the elements around them. An example is oil shale. After it was discovered it was used as a fuel that provided to America’s growing industrialization. A change in the size of a population brings a variety of cultural changes because of new groups and influences coming in. this can also be called diffusion which is when a culture borrows traits from other cultures. This occurs greatly when a society has contact with many societies. The physical environment affects societies in many ways. For example if a society has a low supply of food they can grow locally, they will need to import from other societies. New unknown foods or products can cause change. Natural disasters can change a community by destroying it and after that the members of that community will be more precautious in the future. The least common source of social change are wars and conquests yet they probably bring the greatest amount of social change.

(The Civil Rights movement is an example of a social movement demanding change.)

       With social change often comes resistance to that change. A change that comes from outside a society will probably be met with resistance moved by ethnocentrism, which is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. An example is the “Buy American” campaign I which some people refused to buy Japanese cars instead of American cars. Some traits may take more time to transform than others when change occurs. This is called cultural lag. An example is summer vacations. In the 1800’s when the US was a largely agricultural country, the children would be let out of school in summer because their parents needed help with the farms. Now that the US is a more urbanized country there is still summer vacations in schools. The agricultural trait has changed but the summer vacation trait has not. A person who is well off with the way that things are may resist change. If there is a change that threatens their security they will oppose it, they have a vested interest to protect. For example, workers may oppose new technology because it may cost them their jobs. The vested interest here is the worker’s job.

(Buy American campaign)

       All cultures have ways of internalizing their norms and expectations, yet these things can change over time. It is very hard for a society to not change or be influenced by other societies especially in the 21^st century. With change there will always be opposition whether it’s for the better or for the worse. The world is constantly changing and will keep on changing in all of its existence.